Vedic Teaching--Sruti

The Bhagavad Gita

The Yoga Sutra

Summary

Note

THE ORIGINS OF YOGA : FROM THE UPANISADS TO THE SUTRAS

Author’s Note

The purpose of this document is to offer a practical guide or map for anyone seeking and interested in the origins of Yoga, especially for those who find themselves overwhelmed by the sheer volume of literature to go through and the differing styles of presentation and archaic language. I have tried to flag up where Yoga emerged as a distinct path and to follow its evolution. The seeking out of that path is not simple because the stepping stones are often far apart.

Rather than employ a more narrative style, I have to some extent sacrificed more imaginative prose and chosen to build the piece upon extensive quotations(particularly the Upanisads), in chronological progression, from the original texts. I have highlighted the passages where the word Yoga actually appears and at times this is like seeking diamonds in a coal mine – the odd glimmer here and there. I do realise that this can at times make the reading a little dry but my overarching objective has been to produce something that is above all practical and helpful for yoga teachers and students.

We all occasionally get asked the questions " where did Yoga start", "how old is it", "what was its original purpose", etc. This article should make the answering of these questions easier. I have done the detective work in extracting the key references and tried to present these in a readily accessible format for those who want it. It may also provide a stimulus for further study for those so minded.

The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali is regarded as the pivotal Yoga text. It is the basis for all Yoga studies and practice up to the present time and beyond. The eight limbs of Yoga (astanga) as presented by Patanjali are known by most of the many millions that count themselves as Yoga practitioners today. The text itself is studied in detail by serious yoga students and is the main resource, for application, for Yoga teachers.

It was composed around 200-300 CE. at a time in Indian history when there was a great up surge in philosophical thought and debate about the nature of existence and reality. This culminated in the formation of the six schools of Indian philosophy,the Sat Darsanas: Yoga, Samkhya, Vedanta, Mimansa, Nyaya and Vaisesika.

Of these six, the classical Yoga perspective is provided by the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. In this, he offers a journey towards a clear understanding of, and insight into, our true nature and purpose, providing many avenues to explore and tools to employ to make the attempt successful . We are offered glimpses of the light at the journey’s end, the elusive understanding of who and what we are and the obstacles that we may encounter along the way.

Did this work emerge from Patanjali’s contemplation alone (no doubt at least shared with his students), or did it have roots in earlier traditions and history? To answer this, we need to look briefly at what preceded even the Upanisads. Patanjali’s work comes at the pinnacle of a mountain of earlier thought, introspection and observation and it has drawn together the basic strands to define the very essence of yogic thought. So, what went before? What are the seeds and where the soil in which these great teachings emerged?

We must start as far back in Indian history as we can, right back to 1,500 BCE and beyond when a society lived and flourished along the banks of the Indus Valley. The archeological sites of Mohenjo Daro and Harrappa (now in Pakistan) have revealed a way of life of an affluent trading people set amongst sophisticated town planning and architecture. Amongst the archeological finds at these sites were numerous seals, some of which depict a man seated in a meditation pose giving an intimation that these people already had an experience of Yogic teachings and practices. These seals, though quite small, are of incredible beauty (one can be seen in the National Museum in Delhi). So we know that trade and business were not these people’s only interest: there are clear signs of a spiritual tradition. From this ancient culture and people came the oldest scriptures known to man—the Vedas.

These four works are considered to be the four pillars of ancient Indian thought on which consequent teachings rest for authority and authenticity. Of the four Vedas, the most famous and the oldest is the Rg Veda, followed by the Sama Veda, the Yajur Veda and the Atharva Veda..

They are attributed to illumined sages who are said to have heard the messages directly from God. Their language is both poetic and symbolic and directs the aspirant on the path to spiritual enlightenment.

The Vedas do not write about Yoga in a technical sense. This honour belongs to the Upanisads. But what they do is hint at yogic ideas. For instance, in the Rg Veda appears a poem called the Hymn to the Long Haired One. In this we are given a vision of an ascetic who has great powers (siddhi) and certainly gives intimations of the archetypal Yogi: one free from the fetters that bind the common man. We also have in this text the Gayatri Mantra. Although of Vedic rather than Yogic origin, it has made its way across the centuries into the consciousness of many a yoga practitioner today and can be found woven into their daily practice, e.g. as silent repetition in pranayama. There are also concepts of agni and surya, seeds for techniques like agni sara and surya namaskara.

Their teachings about life and spiritual purpose were developed further in texts known as Brahmanas and Aranyakas. The culmination of all these earlier texts is provided by the Principal Upanisads and referred to as Vedanta, i.e. the end of the Vedas. They were composed over a period from around 800 to 300 BCE

It can thus be seen that the traces of Yoga are present in these most ancient of works but it is not until the Upanisads that Yoga emerges as a distinct concept and it is here that it develops, opens and flowers.

The word Upanisad indicates the sitting close to a master to receive secret and sacred teachings and the texts themselves are regarded as the essence and culmination of the Vedic hymnodies. Particular families (lineages) took an ongoing responsibility for particular Vedas and their related Upanisads. Composed over many centuries by various sages thought to have come from both the Brahmin and Ksatriya varna or castes, they are poetic discourses on the human condition and offer the possibility of freedom and liberation from all that oppresses mankind and the transcendence of the normal limitations of the human condition.

Of the early principal Upanisads (Brihad Aranyaka, Chandogya, Taittiriya, Kausitaki, Aitareya, Kena, Katha, Isa, Svetasvatara, mundaka, Prasna, Maitri and Mundaka), it is interesting to note that the actual epithet YOGA is found in only four: Taittiriya, Katha, Svetasvatara and Maitri, and that these four all come from the lineage of the Black Yajur Veda. The Yajur Veda has two branches: the Black and the White, following a split in the lineage. It appears that it is this particular grouping which has been the arena for Yoga’s conception and evolution. We must now explore these texts for what they tell us about what yoga meant for these people - and to pick up where the ideas are forerunners for yoga concepts developed in the Bhagavad Gita and the later Yoga Sutra.

One of the earliest Upanisads, its style is archaic and not easily accessible. It is said to be the work of the Vedic teacher, Tittiri whose name translates as "partridge". It consists of 3 chapters or Valli.

The first Valli includes many statements on the roles and well being of teacher and student and correct procedures in all aspects of life are emphasised. It also gives the rules for chanting which is an essential discipline for ensuring the correct transmission of these texts, so vital for an oral tradition.

It is in the second Valli that we find Yoga mentioned in a special sense for the very first time. This Valli describes a person as having five aspects: Anna maya—the body made of food, which is filled with Prana Maya: the aspect of breath and energy , Mano maya : our mental faculties and learning received, Vijnana maya: our personality and value system and Ananda maya: the seat of our emotions and our happiness. Each maya is described as a bird with a head, tail, right and left wing and a body. It is in the description of the Vijnana Maya that Yoga is found as representing the body of the bird. Its head is said to be sraddha, (faith ,trust), the right wing Rtam (absolute truth), the left wing Satyam (how we express the truth) and the tail is Mahat (the great beyond from which we have emerged). Commentators on this work all suggest that the word Yoga here refers to contemplation and the idea of the quiet mind.

This model of the human system , is still very much part of Yoga teaching today and comes in to its own when working with individuals and therapy situations. We need to assess where a student’s problems come from i.e. whether they are physical, psychological or emotional, so that we choose suitable techniques to help them towards health and well-being.

In this model we are introduced to Yoga and also the accompanying concepts of faith, righteousness and truth. These too are seen as fundamental to later yoga practice and link with the Yama and Niyama of Patanjali’s eightfold path.

The five aspects presented in the 2^nd Valli are explored again in the third Valli as a journey of meditative enquiry. Here we find the concept of Yogaksema, the idea of being able to stay with our practice and not to lose what we have gained.

Great emphasis is made in the T.UP. of knowledge as the liberating expedient. We will see this take a major role in the later Bhagavad Gita under the banner of Jnana Yoga, the Yoga of wisdom and understanding. The other factor highlighted here is the role of teaching. Prayers are offered that the teacher may find good students, that the teaching may be effective and that the teacher and the student together be protected in the enterprise : " May He protect us both. May he be pleased with us both. May we work together with vigour. May our study be illumined. May there be no dispute between us. AUM. Peace, peace, peace." T.UP chap2v1.

This prayer is as relevant now as ever – the vital importance of preserving a sound transmission within a safe and supportive environment.

Although one does not have Yoga as a clearly developed discipline in this text, we certainly find aspects of later yoga teachings presented. A more developed concept of yoga was soon to emerge as we shall discover next.

Here references to yoga become more explicit and numerous. Apart from the term yoga itself, the text also endorses the need for a competent teacher, the idea of reverence, the use of mantra and the need for non-attachment, knowledge and understanding. In many ways, it is more accessible than the T.UP and we are offered ideas supported by rationale and a clearer path to take.

The style is in story form. It is about the encounter of a young Brahmin boy, Naciketas and Yama, the god of death. Nachiketas is offered three boons by Yama.His third and key request is to know what happens after death. Is there anything left existing? Yama is most reluctant to deal with this but as the questioner is so persistent, the teaching on this slowly gets revealed.

Within this dialogue we find that yoga is afforded a more prominent and delineated role. For the first time in history, we are given an explanation as to what this term actually refers to and means,

" When the five knowledges (senses) together with the mind cease (from their normal activities) and the intellect itself does not stir, that, they say, is the highest state. This, they consider to be Yoga, the steady control of the senses."" Chap 2, part 3, v 10&11.

In chap 1, part 3, v3, this control of the senses is expressed in an analogy. The senses are likened to horses pulling a chariot (the body) which must be kept under control by the charioteer (the intellect/ buddhi) in order that the passenger (the true self/atma) can reach his true destination. This clearly links to Patanjali’s eightfold path, where sense control and the withdrawal of the senses from external stimuli are natural concomitants of the meditative journey. Patanjali’s own definition of Yoga in YS 1 v2 tells us it is the ability to direct the mind towards an object without interruption or diversion and stay with it. This implies that the mind should not be swayed by the senses. The Bhagavad Gita also discusses the need to restrain the senses: "therefore, o mighty armed one, the wisdom of him whose senses are withdrawn from the objects of the senses; that wisdom stands firm." (BG Chap2v68).Thus we see the basic tenet of the YS rooted in much earlier teachings.

Similarly in chap1 part 2. V 12 of the K.UP we find the concept of Adhyatma-Yoga which is the process of self- realisation through meditation.

Other aspects of Yoga are also found in the K.UP, and great emphasis is placed on the roles of knowledge and understanding. We find these ideas picked up by Patanjali in both Kriya and Astanga Yoga as Svadhyaya, which is both the act of study and of self-observation. In the final verse of the K.UP, Chap 6v18, the term Yoga is used again. " Then Nachiketas, having received the knowledge declared by Yama, and the entire rule of Yoga, attained Brahma and became free of passion, free from death and so may any other who knows this in regard to the soul". So here again we find the mastery of the senses and the path of knowledge aligned with Yoga. This final statement endorses Yoga and emphasises the high regard in which it was held by this time.

So far, we have been introduced to yoga and given a definition. Now we are offered some practical advice on how to proceed . This is dealt with in Chap 2 v8-14, which will be discussed verse by verse. In these eight verses, we are taken through the complete Yoga journey, from finding the right environment, to what posture we should adopt and how we should breathe. We learn of manifestations that may occur, the physical attributes that are gained and of the ultimate release from all that binds us.

V8 Provides the first instruction, which is to assume the right seated posture with the spine erect both for meditation and control of the breath. This is a fundamental teaching in all schools of Yoga whether from the Raja or Hatha perspective and advocated in both the Bhagavad Gita and the Hatha Yoga Pradipika. The second issue is the withdrawal of the senses as part of the transcendental process echoing the teachings both of the K. UP and the YS.

V9.Tells us for the first time that the restraint of the breath has a role to play and reminds us that the thought waves of the mind have to be restrained and directed appropriately. As in the K.UP the chariot analogy is invoked to emphasise these ideas.

V10 Explains the need to be in the right environment to practise, one that is clean and agreeable and private. Although life today is so different from these ancient times our basic need for a place conducive to yogic practice is same. We need enough space, a clean floor and an agreeable temperature, all away from unhelpful disturbances.

V.11 We are introduced here to the phenomena that may occur during meditation. We find echoes of these in YS chap 3 with the attainment of special powers (Siddhi) that manifest as a consequence of Samyama i.e. dharana, dhyana and samadhi and again in the final chap of the HYP.

V.12 Explains that, for the adept, sickness, old age or death no longer have any influence on him. Absolutely nothing disturbs him.

V 13 Links first signs of progress in Yoga with lightness, healthiness, a clear complexion, a pleasant voice, a sweet smell and scant excretions. We have similar claims in the YS and the HYP. We are told, in the most clear terms, of the practical benefits that ensue from Yoga practice and they certainly offer ideals that resonate with modern concerns and are the very issues that make Yoga an attractive choice when one seeks a path to well-being.

V 14 Tells us that when the self has fulfilled its purpose and is free from sorrow it is like a dusty mirror that has been cleaned and then shines brightly.

V 15 Here a second analogy is used to denote the goal being reached: that of the soul as a lamp shining brightly. Then we are told "we are free from all fetters" this phrase occurs so frequently in the Upanisads that it could almost have the status of a "Maha Vakya" a great saying expressing the core of the teachings.

We are thus given the full spectrum of Yoga. Later texts and schools certainly elaborate on and develop these concepts but all adhere to this basic framework.

This is the last Upanisad of the Black Yajur Veda lineage and is twice the length of its predecessors. It commences with a discourse between Brhadratha, a king who had renounced his kingdom and was practising extreme austerities in the forest, and Sakayanya, the knower of the Self. The dialogue is somewhat similar to that between Naciketas and Yama, in the K.UP. Here, Brhadratha is offered a single boon and he chooses to know the true nature of the soul, atman. Like Yama, Sakayanya prevaricates but eventually reveals his answer by telling stories within stories. Yoga is given wide coverage in this text and many scholars consider it instrumental in its development. I have again dealt with this by reference to the text.

Chap 4 v4 offers a three pronged approach of knowledge, austerity and meditation. This is very much akin to Patanjali’s path of Kriya Yoga which consists of discipline (tapas) self-study (svadhyaya) and the acknowledgement of a higher principle or force (isvara-pranidhana).

Chap 6v18 gives the fuller model of sadanga Yoga: six limbs or practices to effect unity. These consist of pranayama (breath control), pratyahara (sense-withdrawal),dhyana (meditation) dharana (concentration) tarka (contemplation) and samadhi (complete identification with the object of meditation). Although not dealing with lifestyle, personal observances and asana, as Patanjali does in his eightfold scheme for practice of Yoga, its main aim is the same. The journey goes in the same direction.